Multimodal Aposematic Defenses Through the Predation Sequence

Aposematic organisms warn predators of their unprofitability using a combination defenses, including visual warning signals, startling sounds, noxious odors, or aversive tastes. Using multiple lines defense can help prey avoid by stimulating senses and/or acting at different stages predation. We tested the efficacy three (color, smell, taste) during predation sequence aposematic wood tiger moths ( Arctia plantaginis ) blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus predators. Moths with two hindwing phenotypes (genotypes: WW/Wy = white, yy yellow) were manipulated to have fluid smell (methoxypyrazines), body tissues taste (pyrrolizidine alkaloids) both. In early stages, moth color and had additive effects on bird approach latency dropping prey, strongest effect for white morph fluids. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration was detrimental in attack suggesting trade-off between pyrrolizidine investment other defenses. addition, alone did not deter Birds could only effectively discriminate toxic from non-toxic when neck fluids containing methoxypyrazines present, which point they abandoned consumption stage. As result, an methoxypyrazine treatment both chemical defenses greatest chance survival. suggest that act as context setting signals colors attention alerting “go-slow” distasteful toxins, thereby mediating relationship signal toxicity. Furthermore, we found heterozygous coloration more effective compared genotypes terms delaying reducing drop moth, genetic link explain polymorphism. Conclusively, these results indicate color, constitute multimodal impedes predator improves This work highlights importance understanding separate roles through also within-species variation